{"id":108758,"date":"2025-12-23T10:54:22","date_gmt":"2025-12-23T15:54:22","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.historians.org\/?post_type=resource&#038;p=108758"},"modified":"2026-02-03T15:39:00","modified_gmt":"2026-02-03T20:39:00","slug":"history-of-federal-science-funding","status":"publish","type":"resource","link":"https:\/\/www.historians.org\/resource\/history-of-federal-science-funding\/","title":{"rendered":"History of Federal Science Funding"},"content":{"rendered":"<h4>About the Briefing<\/h4>\n<p>This handout was created for the AHA&#8217;s December 11, 2025, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.historians.org\/news-and-advocacy\/congressional-briefings\">Congressional Briefing<\/a> on the history of federal science funding. Panelists <a href=\"https:\/\/history.umd.edu\/directory\/melinda-baldwin\">Melinda Baldwin<\/a> (Univ. of Maryland), <a href=\"https:\/\/search.asu.edu\/profile\/4739440\">Arthur Daemmrich<\/a> (Arizona State Univ.), and <a href=\"https:\/\/carey.jhu.edu\/faculty\/bhaven-sampat-phd\">Bhaven Sampat<\/a> (Johns Hopkins Univ.) discussed the history of the federal government\u2019s approach toward science in public policy, and how the government has supported and funded scientific research and innovation over time.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/szat64r23HE?si=qgBvjrMSeOGz-IDO\" title=\"YouTube video player\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture; web-share\" referrerpolicy=\"strict-origin-when-cross-origin\" allowfullscreen><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h4>Overview<\/h4>\n<p>The United States has invested in science since the nation\u2019s founding. Today\u2019s research system grew out of Congressional responses to evolving national needs, geopolitical competition, and key scientific and technological breakthroughs. Competing visions of national strategic goals have sparked debates and compromises over what science to support, how to fund it, and who sets research priorities. The resulting mix of federal departments and agencies that fund basic research and carry out mission-oriented science has been lauded for underpinning global scientific leadership as well as criticized for its bureaucracy and increasingly risk-averse funding culture.<\/p>\n<h4>1790\u20131900: Building Practical Science and National Capacity<\/h4>\n<p><strong>1790<\/strong> \u2013\u202fCongress passes the first US patent act, encouraging invention and creating a new system of intellectual property.<\/p>\n<p><strong>1803<\/strong> \u2013 Congress funds the Lewis &amp; Clark expedition, which maps the West, identifies plant and animal species, and describes unique geologic formations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>1807<\/strong> \u2013 The US Coast Survey becomes the first civilian scientific agency, supporting navigation and defense.<\/p>\n<p><strong>1843<\/strong> \u2013\u202fCongress funds\u202fSamuel Morse\u2019s telegraph demonstration line through a $30,000 appropriation, helping launch US telecommunications.<\/p>\n<p><strong>1846<\/strong> \u2013 Congress establishes the Smithsonian Institution as a public-private partnership. It quickly becomes a center for research and public science and later evolves into a museum complex.<\/p>\n<p><strong>1840s\u201390s<\/strong> \u2013 Scientific associations including the American Association for Advancement of Science (AAAS), the American Chemical Society (ACS), and the Geological Society of American (GSA) are founded, strengthening the nation\u2019s scientific community.<\/p>\n<p><strong>1862<\/strong> \u2013 The Department of Agriculture is established and begins collecting agricultural statistics and conducting basic chemical and botanical analyses. The Morrill Act established land-grant colleges, funded agricultural science, and supported knowledge transfer to farmers.<\/p>\n<p><strong>1863<\/strong> \u2013 Congress charters the National Academy of Sciences to advise the government on scientific and technical matters.<\/p>\n<p><strong>1879<\/strong> \u2013 The US Geological Survey is founded to map the nation and standardize measurements.<\/p>\n<p><strong>1887<\/strong> \u2013 The Hygienic Laboratory is established, which would evolve into the National Institutes of Health.<\/p>\n<h4>1900\u201360: Federal Agencies and the Rise of Basic Research<\/h4>\n<p><strong>1906<\/strong> \u2013 Congress passes the Pure Food and Drug Act, leading to the creation of the Food and Drug Administration, which establishes technical standards and new laboratory methods alongside its regulatory role.<\/p>\n<p><strong>1917\u201318<\/strong> \u2013\u202fWorld War I spurs new federal science coordination through the National Research Council and military research offices.<\/p>\n<p><strong>1923<\/strong> \u2013 The US Navy builds the Naval Experimental and Research Laboratory (later renamed the Naval Research Laboratory).<\/p>\n<p><strong>1939\u201353<\/strong> \u2013 US federal spending on science increases by a factor of 25 (adjusted for inflation).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Early 1940s<\/strong> \u2013\u202fWorld War II mobilization\u2014including penicillin development and the Manhattan Project\u2014anchors federal leadership in large-scale research and development.<\/p>\n<p><strong>1944<\/strong> \u2013 Senator Harley Kilgore introduces legislation for a postwar National Science Foundation, funding basic and applied research with strong political accountability.<\/p>\n<p><strong>1945<\/strong> \u2013 Vannevar Bush\u2019s Science\u2013The Endless Frontier published; proposes a National Research Foundation run by scientists.<\/p>\n<p><strong>1945-50<\/strong> \u2013 \u201cBush-Kilgore debates\u201d\u202fin Congress and in scientific journals explore competing visions for science planning, control of funds and their dissemination, geographic distribution of funding, and priority setting for basic versus applied research. The Atomic Energy Commission was established in 1946, the National Institutes of Health is renamed in 1948, and the National Science Foundation is created in 1950.<\/p>\n<p><strong>1958<\/strong> \u2013 After Russia\u2019s launch of the Sputnik satellite in 1957, NASA and the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA, later renamed DARPA) are created, expanding federal support for space, defense, and engineering research.<\/p>\n<h4>1960s\u201390s: Reassessment, Retrenchment, and New Science Policy Debates<\/h4>\n<p><strong>1966<\/strong> \u2013 The Department of Defense\u2019s Project Hindsight report questions the payoff of basic research and elevates applied science.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Late 1960s\/early 1970s<\/strong> \u2013 Federal science funding declines for the first time since World War II, sparking\u202fconcern that science funding is no longer a priority for the federal government.<\/p>\n<p><strong>1973<\/strong> \u2013 President Nixon clashes with the National Institutes of Health over the direction of cancer research and with his science advisors over numerous issues. He abolishes the President\u2019s Science Advisory Committee (PSAC) and the Office of Science and Technology and fires the NIH director.<\/p>\n<p><strong>1975\u201376<\/strong> \u2013 Economic pressures lead to cuts at NSF; Congress passes the National Science and Technology Policy Act, creating the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP).<\/p>\n<p><strong>1980<\/strong> \u2013 Congress passes the Bayh-Dole Act, allowing recipients of federal grants to obtain patents, and the Stevensen-Wydler Act, supporting tech transfer from national laboratories to private sector and state and local governments.<\/p>\n<p><strong>1980s\u201390s<\/strong> \u2013 President Reagan emphasizes basic research and defense technologies; major initiatives including Star Wars and the Superconducting Super Collider highlight tensions over both basic and applied science. The end of the Cold War shifts federal priorities to health (including the Human Genome Initiative), economic competitiveness, and information technologies.<\/p>\n<h4>2000\u2013Present: Security, Innovation, and Crisis Response<\/h4>\n<p><strong>2002<\/strong> \u2013 Congress passes the Homeland Security Act, establishing the Department of Homeland Security by combining all or part of 22 federal departments and agencies.<\/p>\n<p><strong>2000\u201310s<\/strong> \u2013National security concerns drive growth in defense science and technology; NIH budget doubles, and biotech and digital technologies gain prominence.<\/p>\n<p><strong>2020<\/strong> \u2013 Operation Warp Speed accelerates COVID-19 vaccine development, echoing earlier wartime mobilization models.<\/p>\n<p><strong>2022<\/strong> \u2013 CHIPS and Science Act authorizes funding for semiconductor manufacturing, research, and education programs and establishes the Technology, Innovation and Partnerships (TIP) Directorate at the NSF and its regional innovation engines program.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Mid-2020s<\/strong> \u2013 New debates revisit the balance of basic and applied research and the federal role in funding and managing university-based research, technology development and transfer, and alignment with national development strategies.<\/p>\n<h5 style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"TextRun MacChromeBold SCXW163199198 BCX0\" lang=\"EN\" xml:lang=\"EN\" data-contrast=\"none\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW163199198 BCX0\">Federal R&amp;D Budgets, 1976-present<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n<div id=\"attachment_108766\" style=\"width: 610px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-108766\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-108766\" src=\"https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/12\/RD-Budgets-600x294.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"294\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/12\/RD-Budgets-600x294.png 600w, https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/12\/RD-Budgets-768x376.png 768w, https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/12\/RD-Budgets.png 936w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-108766\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Source: Adapted from AAAS Federal R&amp;D Budget Dashboard (https:\/\/www.aaas.org\/programs\/r-d-budget-and-policy\/historical-rd-data).<\/p><\/div>\n<h4>Participant Biographies<\/h4>\n<p><strong>Melinda Baldwin<\/strong> is the AIP Endowed Professor in History of Natural Sciences at the University of Maryland, College Park. She holds a BS in chemistry from Davidson College, an MPhil in history and philosophy of science from the University of Cambridge, and a PhD in history from Princeton University. Her research examines how scientific authority is constructed and communicated, especially through journals, peer review, and the institutions that define expertise. She is the author of <em>Making \u201cNature\u201d: The History of a Scientific Journal<\/em> and the forthcoming book <em>In Referees We Trust? How Peer Review Became a Mark of Scientific Legitimacy<\/em>.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Arthur Daemmrich<\/strong> is director of the Arizona State University Consortium for Science, Policy and Outcomes and a professor of practice in the ASU School for the Future of Innovation in Society. He holds a BA in history and sociology of science from the University of Pennsylvania and a PhD in science and technology studies from Cornell University. His research focuses on innovation, regulation, and the evolution of the federal science and technology policy profession. He previously directed the Smithsonian\u2019s Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation and has held appointments at the University of Kansas School of Medicine and Harvard Business School.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Bhaven Sampat<\/strong> is an economist at Johns Hopkins University, with faculty appointments at the School of Government and Policy and the Carey Business School, and a research associate at the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). He holds a BA and PhD in economics from Columbia University. His research examines the history and political economy of innovation policy, federally funded research, patent policy, and the US biomedical research enterprise. He has published on how public funding, patent law, and institutional design shape drug development, university\u2013industry technology transfer, and long-run scientific and economic outcomes. He previously held appointments at Arizona State University, Columbia University, New York University, and Georgia Tech.<\/p>\n<p><em>The AHA is grateful to the Consortium for Science, Policy and Outcomes at Arizona State University and the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation for their sponsorship of this briefing.<\/em><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-107628 \" src=\"https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/CSPO_Logo_Primary_full-color-scaled-e1764016073881-600x210.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"252\" height=\"88\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/CSPO_Logo_Primary_full-color-scaled-e1764016073881-600x210.png 600w, https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/CSPO_Logo_Primary_full-color-scaled-e1764016073881-1200x419.png 1200w, https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/CSPO_Logo_Primary_full-color-scaled-e1764016073881-768x268.png 768w, https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/CSPO_Logo_Primary_full-color-scaled-e1764016073881-1536x537.png 1536w, https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/CSPO_Logo_Primary_full-color-scaled-e1764016073881-2048x716.png 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 252px) 100vw, 252px\" \/><em><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-107627 \" src=\"https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Sloan-Logo-2B-Gold-Blue-600x117.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"251\" height=\"49\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Sloan-Logo-2B-Gold-Blue-600x117.png 600w, https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Sloan-Logo-2B-Gold-Blue-1200x235.png 1200w, https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Sloan-Logo-2B-Gold-Blue-768x150.png 768w, https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Sloan-Logo-2B-Gold-Blue-1536x300.png 1536w, https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Sloan-Logo-2B-Gold-Blue.png 1687w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 251px) 100vw, 251px\" \/><\/em><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>About the Briefing This handout was created for the AHA&#8217;s December 11, 2025, Congressional Briefing on the history of federal&hellip;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"featured_media":109017,"template":"","aha-topic":[60],"geographic-taxonomy":[],"resource-type":[87,906,80],"thematic-taxonomy":[33,38],"class_list":{"0":"post-108758","1":"resource","2":"type-resource","3":"status-publish","4":"has-post-thumbnail","5":"hentry","6":"aha-topic-aha-initiatives-projects","7":"resource-type-aha-resource","8":"resource-type-congressional-briefing-resource","9":"resource-type-for-the-classroom","10":"thematic-taxonomy-medicine-science-technology","11":"thematic-taxonomy-political","18":"has-featured-image"},"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/resource\/108758","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/resource"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/resource"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/resource\/108758\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":110373,"href":"https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/resource\/108758\/revisions\/110373"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/109017"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=108758"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"aha-topic","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/aha-topic?post=108758"},{"taxonomy":"geographic-taxonomy","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/geographic-taxonomy?post=108758"},{"taxonomy":"resource-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/resource-type?post=108758"},{"taxonomy":"thematic-taxonomy","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.historians.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/thematic-taxonomy?post=108758"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}